The old cereals: wheat, barley, rye, milletWheat was the cereal preferred by the Greeks since ancient times, however, it
represents only one of the cereals consumed in Greece. The French tourist de
Pouponne, who visited the island of Chios in the 1600s, was impressed by the
scarcity of wheat and wrote that "on the island abandons everything but the wheat".32
Wheat production in the mid 19 th and early 20th centuries was not sufficient to meet
the consumption needs of the Greek State (limited in the southern part of Greece)
and most of the wheat consumed was imported. In the northern region of Mace-
donia, which was occupied by the Turks until 1922, however, cereal production
exceeded needs and a substantial proportion was exported.33 In the late 1920s, cereal
crops occupied about 60% of all cultivated land in Greece. Wheat occupied 25%,
and barley 12% of the total cultivated land, while another 10% was occupied by
corn.19 Barley was cultivated extensively in dry areas, whereas rye was the grain
with higher yield rates in cold, mountainous regions.28 Millet was another cereal that
was grown and consumed in some Greek regions, especially during periods of food
shortage. On the island of Crete, during medieval times, peasants prepared their
bread from a mixture of barley, wheat, and millet flour. Extensive use of millet by
the Cretans has been documented during the 1591 famine, at a time when the island
was under Venetian occupation.
b. The new cereals: corn and rice
Wheat and barley are winter crops, and reliance on these plants created a pattern
that was associated with significant risk of food shortage. Greek farmers cultivated
corn, as this was a cereal that could support them during the springtime, thus reducing
food-shortage risk. Corn, a New World food, was cultivated in western and northern
regions such as the Ionian islands, Epirus, and Etolia.9,36 On the other hand, on the
islands of the eastern Aegean, corn remained unknown until the 20th century.37,38
Bread made from corn was used extensively by peasants and herders in western
and northern Greece and was less expensive than wheat bread.36 Corn was used by
itself or mixed with wheat to prepare small unleavened breads and soups. The bread
that was made of mixed wheat and corn flour was known as mixed-bread (anaka-
totos)? Corn meal, often referred to as boukouvala, was a common food in western
Greece. Corn, however, was viewed by the Greeks as a second-choice grain. Corn
flour was known in Corfu as barbaralevro, a colloquial term for "barbarians' flour".
Corn bread was also referred to as alitourgito, for not having been blessed in church,
thus being distinguished from wheat bread, which was the bread used during the
procession of the Holy Communion (litourgia). In the southeastern parts of the
country, corn was hardly consumed, and its sole use in human nutrition was in the
form of a street-food item; in the late 19th century, boiled corn-on-the-cob was sold
by street vendors in Constantinople and the towns of Asia Minor.
Rice became part of the Greek diet in recent times. Though some rice was grown
in a few Greek regions such as the island of Crete, since the 17th century, almost
all rice consumed in Greece until the 1940s was imported. In the 19th and early
20th centuries, rice was an expensive commodity and only prosperous families could
afford it. Unlike dry legumes and other cereal grains, which were typically
purchased in large quantities, rice was procured by urban families on a day-to-day
basis. From evidence that household logs provide, we can conclude that rice was
invariably eaten as part of meat dishes.
c. Breads consumed
Bread has been the main dietary staple for the Greeks since ancient times. Periods
of famine were marked by the shortage of this commodity.
Preparation of fresh bread was done by villagers on a weekly basis. Various
types of dry-flour products were used when out of fresh bread, mainly toasted bread
(paximadi) and a type of dry bread, the kouloura. In medieval Crete, a particular
type of dry bread, the frisopo, was also used.35 According to Kostis, poor Greek
farmers subsisted on a coarse bread that contained more barley, corn, or millet than
wheat. Use of bread made of barley as well as other cereals, besides wheat, has been
also documented in accounts written by early tourists who traveled in Greece in the
17th century. The same pattern regarding the composition of bread has been
reported for many other European areas during the Middle Ages.
In 19th- and early 20th-century Greek cities, two types of bread were available,
premium bread and second-quality bread.1422 Premium bread, known as hasiko or
kathario (a colloquial term for pure), was an all-wheat white bread and was the
bread of choice of prosperous Greeks.39 All-wheat bread was also highly esteemed
by poor Greek peasants, who considered it a luxury food. The second-quality bread
was a whole-flour bread, usually made from mixed wheat and barley flour.
Available evidence indicates that the dietary importance of bread and cereal
products was inversely related to affluence and urban environment. The amount of
money typically spent toward bread and wheat products by prosperous 19th-century
Greeks fell behind that spent for meat. According to historical sources, expenses
made by wealthy households toward meat purchases were as much as 2.5-fold higher
than expenses toward procuring bread and other wheat products.
Dry Legumes and VegetablesDry legumes constituted an important dietary item for the Greeks during past cen-
turies. The lentil, the broad bean, the garbanzo bean, and the dry pea were the
legumes most commonly eaten. In certain areas such as the island of Crete, the horse
bean (lathouri) was also consumed by peasants. French beans were introduced in
the Greek diet long before the other New World vegetable items, such as the tomato
and the potato. Medieval sources provide evidence that French beans were imported
in Crete from Venice as early as the 1700s3547 On the islands of the eastern Aegean
Sea however, French beans became available only during the 1900s. "French beans"
(fragofasoula) was the term adopted initially for this new type of beans in most
Greek regions;14 later on however, French beans were simply named "beans" (faso-
lia), a fact that illustrates the popularity this legume gained among Greeks.
Legumes were very popular among rural people, but were deemed of low value
by urban Greeks. During the early 20th century, legume consumption by Athenians
inversely mirrored their income. Dry legumes' value as a source of protein and
amino acids was not fully appreciated by Greek scientists before the 1940s.26 48 It is
noteworthy that a prominent Greek physician in her treatise on Foods and Nutrition,49
maintained that consumption of legumes should be avoided, and even more so by
the poor people, as it results in an increased protein requirement!
Vegetables hold an important role in the traditional Greek diet. Of great dietary
significance were wild greens. Collection of wild greens constituted a major food
resource for rural Greek families. The German geographer Josef Partsch, in his
accounts of rural life on the Ionian island of Corfu, wrote in late 1800s that villagers
"depend for their nutrition on wild vegetables and other strange greens to which
they add some olive oil and sometimes, lemon juice." Twenty seven species of wild
greens are reported to have been collected and consumed routinely on the eastern
Aegean island of Samos in the beginning of the 20th century.37 Wild greens were
available in urban markets throughout the Greek mainland and the Aegean islands
in the 19th century,38 but were generally considered a lesser food item by urban
Greeks.29 Wild greens were usually consumed plain-boiled as salad, but occasionally
were also eaten fried, braised, or as the main ingredient in pies and dishes. Greens
and herbs were collected by the villagers, not only for food, but also for their
medicinal and cosmetic properties.29
Among cultivated vegetable species, of most widespread use during the 19th
and early 20th centuries were onions, leeks, cabbage, carrots, endive, chard, okra,
artichoke, purslane, and parsley.142735 38 Several other vegetables were available in
the markets of Athens and other urban centers in 19th century, but they were
expensive.
Zucchinis were available in the Greek markets as early as 1800s, but were
expensive and sold by the piece. Also highly priced were the tomato, the pepper,
and the potato, all items that were originally introduced from the Americas. While
most of the vegetables are mentioned in household logs collectively under a generic
term for salad items (such as salatika or kipeftika), zucchini, potato, and the tomato
were typically mentioned by name. Cultivation of tomatoes spread in the islands of
the Aegean Sea during the mid 19th century. The potato was unknown in the Greek
mainland until the 1800s. Use of potatoes was first adopted by the poor peasants in
mountainous areas and soon acquired a significant dietary role. Potatoes were sold
in the Athenian market as early as 1834, but were introduced to Crete and the
islands of the eastern Aegean Sea after the 1860s.
Olive OilThe Greek diet is, above all, characterized by the type of added fat it involves —
olive oil. Olive oil has been highly esteemed and considered a very nutritious food
by the Greeks since medieval times.53 Besides being an important food commodity,
olive oil found several non-nutritional uses in past centuries, mainly as a fuel and
cosmetic.47 Olive oil was, though, an expensive commodity because its production
offered a low yield and was produced through a laborious process.47,54 Olive oil's
liberal consumption was considered a privilege that only rich people could have.
The widespread belief that spilling olive oil brings bad luck55 illustrates the scarcity
of the product. Olive oil is the only vegetable food that, according to Christian
Orthodox doctrines, devoted Christians should remove from their regimen during
the days of Lent. However, consumption of olives is not restricted during Lent. This
tradition must have aimed at reducing the demand for olive oil.
Historical sources reveal that olive oil's production and consumption in medieval
Crete were far less than current levels. Prices of olive oil in Crete during the
1300s were extremely high; the cost of one kilo of olive oil matched a laborer's
monthly wage.56 During this period, it was forbidden by law for Cretans to sell retail
quantities of olive oil that exceeded one kilo per person.
Archival sources provide evidence that, in the mid 18 th century, in the monastery
of St. George Ragousi, located on the island of Chios, the quantity of olive oil
secured for the operational needs of the church (i.e., as fuel for oil candles) surpassed
the quantity that was used for the nourishment of the ten monks (61.5 kg/year vs.
46.0 kg/year). Prices of olive oil in the 1840s are also indicative. Olive oil was
sold in the Greek cities at prices two to four times higher than the price of meat,
one and a half times higher than the price of cheese, and five to twelve times higher
than the price of wine. The price of olive oil, however, was half the price of butter,
in contrast to other areas of Europe, such as France, where olive oil was sold at
prices comparable to those of prime quality butter.
Following the establishment of the New Greek State in the 1820s, production
of olive oil in Greece exhibited a continuous increase throughout the 19th century.
60 First, because of an increase in the number of cultivated olive trees, and second,
because of advancements in olive-oil-extraction techniques. The new techniques
allowed for the yield rate to increase by up to 10-12%. These changes made
olive oil a less expensive food item and, in the 1920s, its price in Athens was
comparable to the prices of meat and salted cod, and only three times higher than
the price of wine. In the 1930s, Greece exported about 9% of its total olive oil
production.
WineWine has been a staple food for the Greeks since ancient times. Grapes were the
main export item for the Greek State throughout the 19th century. In 1860, vineyards
occupied 21.4% of all arable land in Greece. Most of these vineyards (76%) repre-
sented wine-producing varieties, while the rest were table grapes. Grape production
was high in southern Greece but relatively limited in northern Greece. In the early
20th century, two thirds of the grape production came from the regions of the
Peloponnese (southern Greece), Sterea Hellas (southern central Greece) and the
island of Crete.17 In the northern regions, however, the main alcoholic beverage
consumed was not wine, but raki or tsipouro, alcoholic beverages made from distilled
grapes or pomace, similar to the French eau de
MeatMost of the meat produced and consumed in 19th-century Greece was lamb and
goat. Beef was a commodity hardly used in most rural Greek areas before the
1920s.37 In the early 20th century, production of beef was increased to represent
35% of total meat production, while goat and lamb represented 38%, pork 15%, and
poultry 13% of the total meat produced in the country. Among the labor classes in
Athens, beef was the major type of meat eaten in the early 20th century. Laborers
in Athens preferred beef over lamb and goat, as it was less expensive. The meat
of choice among prosperous urban Athenians during spring and summer months was
lamb, while beef was preferred during winter months, a period when the price of
meat was generally higher.
Pork provided valuable nutrients to peasants who often raised one pig at home.
Most of the pork was consumed in preserved form rather than fresh. Several tradi-
tional dried and cured pork products, such as smoked cuts, sausages, and blood
sausages (hematites) were prepared in most of rural Greek regions. Greeks used
extensively the various lesser cuts of meats and offal. In urban centers, pork
consumption was limited and was substantially lower than that of beef, a consump-
tion pattern that persisted throughout the 20th century.
In sharp contrast with the situation in western European urban centers,62,63 most
of the meat consumed in 19th-century Greek cities and towns was fresh. Dried and
cured forms of meat in the Greek markets were exceptionally expensive. In the mid
1800s, pork sausage was the only available type of preserved meat sold in the markets
of Athens, at prices that were more than double the price of fresh beef.
Rural Greeks resorted regularly to game birds to supplement their diet. In urban
centers, only prosperous people could afford to buy game meat. Rabbit and partridge
were especially esteemed. Rabbit meat was often preserved in salt, much the same
as fish.
Fish and SeafoodGreeks who did not reside in areas neighboring the sea consumed salted and dried
fish and seafood. Salted sardines and octopus were sold widely in the Greek markets
in the 1800s.18 Octopus and other kinds of molluscs, such as squid and snails, were
consumed extensively during Lent, when all other animal food was restricted.
